Ancient technology that appears to be centuries or even millennia ahead of its time continues to fascinate historians, archaeologists, engineers, and enthusiasts alike. These technologies demonstrate remarkable ingenuity and challenge our understanding of the capabilities of ancient civilizations. Here is a detailed overview of some of the most famous and intriguing examples:

Antikythera Mechanism

In 1901, a group of sponge divers came across a Roman-era shipwreck off Antikythera Island in the Aegean Sea. The dive turned out to be perilous. One diver died, and the crushing pressure paralyzed two more.

However, it was not all in vain. The recovery of the shipwreck bore exciting archaeological finds. There were bronze and marble statues, some minor artifacts, and a peculiar object about the size of a thick book. This mysterious object was one of the most intriguing discoveries ever found in Greece. 

Researchers named the object the Antikythera Mechanism. It is the world’s first example of an analog computer. It was possibly used in a temple or academy to calculate planetary positions, to predict astronomical events, and to track important dates like the Panhellenic or Olympic Games.

Archaeologists dated it from the first or second century BC. Made of bronze, and likely carried in a wooden box, it had 30 gear wheels and even a tiny script with instructions on how to use it. There is no evidence of similar devices until the medieval period. 

Greek fire: flames that don’t go out

An illustration of Greek Fire. Photo: Madrid Skylitzes

When the Muslim fleet of the Umayyad Caliphate attempted to lay siege to the Byzantine city of Constantinople in 674, their ships were doused in flames. At first, the Muslims were not alarmed; fire was often used in naval warfare and could be put out easily with cloth, dirt, or water. This, however, was no ordinary fire. Once ignited, it could not be extinguished, and after the entire fleet had burned down, even the sea itself was set ablaze.

The Umayyad Caliphate met its doom at the hands of a new military invention known as Greek fire, Roman fire, liquid fire, or sea fire, among many other names. No recipe survives, but historians speculate it might have involved petroleum, sulfur, or gunpowder. Of the three, petroleum seems the likeliest candidate, as gunpowder didn’t become readily available in Asia Minor until the 14th century, and sulfur lacked the destructive power described by Arab observers.

However, what makes Greek fire so impressive is not the chemistry of the fire itself but the design of the pressure pump the Byzantines used to launch it in the direction of their enemies. As the British historian John Haldon discusses in an essay titled “‘Greek Fire’ Revisited,” researchers struggle to recreate an historically accurate pump that could have propelled its content far enough to be of any use during naval battles, where enemy ships may be dozens or even hundreds of meters removed from one another.

Antikythera mechanism: a cosmic clock before Copernicus

Remnants of the mechanism of Antikythera at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.

The Antikythera mechanism was found off the coast of Antikythera, a small Greek island located between Kythera and Crete. Its discovery occurred in 1901, when divers in search of sea sponges stumbled upon a deposit of sunken wreckage from classical antiquity. The titular contraption was incomplete and in poor condition, but it seemed to consist of some 37 bronze gears stored inside a wooden box.

Scholars initially speculated that the Antikythera mechanism, which was found to be over 2,200 years old, had functioned as an ancient computer. This hypothesis was written off as being too improbable, only to be reaffirmed by more detailed studies from the 1970s. The current consensus holds that the mechanism was an orrery: a model of the solar system that calculates and tracks celestial time.

CT scans reveal the contraption’s mindboggling complexity. A 2021 attempt at replicating the Antikythera mechanism referred to it as “a creation of genius — combining cycles from Babylonian astronomy, mathematics from Plato’s Academy, and ancient Greek astronomical theories.” It could calculate the ecliptic longitudes of the moon and sun, the phases of the moon, the synodic phases of the planets, the excluded days of the Metonic Calendar, and the Olympiad cycle, among a myriad of other things.

Archimedes’ Death Ray

Archimedes was one of the greatest mathematicians in the ancient world. Not only was he great with numbers, but he was also an engineering visionary. He is famous as the guy who ran naked through the streets of Syracuse, in Sicily, shouting “Eureka!” after he noticed the displacement of water in his bathtub.

He also invented war machines for the defense of his native town against the Romans.

One of these war machines was a potential heat ray. This claim is controversial because historians stress that there is no evidence of this invention. Perhaps a mistranslation of the sources describing his machines? Nevertheless, over the years, many paintings and illustrations have portrayed the heat ray in action.

Those who believe that Archimedes created a heat ray believe the machine caught the sun with polished bronze or copper mirrors, angling the ray at Roman ships. They believe that the ships caught fire because of the intense heat. Scientific tests have proved that it is possible to set a ship on fire with this method. 

Hypocaust System

The word hypocaust comes from two Greek words: ‘hypo’, meaning under, and ‘caust’, meaning burnt. Caius Sergius Orata developed the system in 80 BC, and it was mostly used by the rich upper classes in northern Italy. It was also a key component of the thermal Roman baths.

Gas from fires or furnaces circulated in an open space beneath the floor. Squat pillars separated a layer of tiles and concrete from the main floor of a room. Romans could increase the temperature by adding more firewood. 

Tiles covered most government buildings and villas, making heat circulation easy. However, the lower classes rarely had the system installed, as it was expensive to maintain.

Roman Concrete

Roman concrete has been a source of fascination due to its durability and longevity, with structures like the Pantheon still standing after nearly 2,000 years. Unlike modern concrete, Roman concrete can self-heal, thanks to its unique composition of volcanic ash, lime, and seawater. This mixture allows the concrete to strengthen over time, an attribute that continues to influence modern construction techniques. The ability of Roman concrete to endure for centuries underscores the advanced engineering skills of ancient Romans. This innovation not only supported monumental architecture but also paved the way for future advancements in building materials.

Baghdad Battery

The Baghdad Battery, also known as the Parthian Battery, is a set of ancient artifacts that may represent an early galvanic cell. Dating from 250 BC to 250 AD, these clay jars contain a copper cylinder and an iron rod, suggesting the possibility of electrochemical reactions. The exact purpose of these batteries remains debated, with theories ranging from electroplating to therapeutic uses. The existence of such technology in ancient Mesopotamia challenges our understanding of the technological capabilities of early civilizations. This invention hints at a level of scientific knowledge that predates modern electrical discoveries.

Damascus steel

People covet Damascus Steel for its shatter-resistant, sharp, and strong characteristics. But the Damascus steel knives in a modern kitchen differ from the Damascus steel of old. It had the reputation of being so hard and sharp that it could cut through a rifle barrel or slice a silk scarf falling across it.

Historians dispute the very name since no one knows if it originally came from Damascus. Damascus steel (also called wootz steel) is a metal high in carbon, glass, iron, and charcoal. These elements were placed under high heat. But over the centuries, blacksmiths lost the art of making Damascus steel.

The Houfeng Didong Yi: the world’s first seismoscope

Created almost 2000 years ago, the Houfeng Didong Yi holds the honor of being the world’s first seismoscope. Its place of origin was China, a country that has been plagued by earthquakes for as long as its inhabitants can remember. Its creator was Zhang Heng, a distinguished astronomer, cartographer, mathematician, poet, painter, and inventor who lived under the Han Dynasty from 78 to 139 AD.

The design of the Houfeng Didong Yi is as functional as it is aesthetically pleasing. The mechanism consists of a large, decorated copper pot. The pot was fitted with eight tubed projections that were shaped to look like dragon heads. Below each dragon head was placed a copper toad with a large, gaping mouth.

“Zhang’s seismoscope,” one 2009 study from Taiwan explains, “is respected as a milestone invention since it can indicate not only the occurrence of an earthquake but also the direction to its source.” While primary sources are unclear as to how the seismoscope actually worked, researchers suggest that vibrations caused a pendulum inside the pot to swing, causing a small ball to release through a dragon head and into the mouth of its corresponding toad, indicating the direction of an earthquake.

Crossbow (Ancient China)

The crossbow, invented in ancient China around the 5th century BC, revolutionized warfare with its ability to shoot projectiles with greater force and accuracy than traditional bows. This weapon featured a horizontal bow mounted on a stock, allowing for easier aiming and loading. The crossbow’s design enabled soldiers to shoot from a distance, providing a tactical advantage in battle. Its introduction marked a significant advancement in military technology, influencing warfare strategies for centuries. The crossbow’s effectiveness in combat and its continued use in various forms highlight the ingenuity of ancient Chinese engineers.

Yakhchal

The 4th century BC saw the creation of a modern staple, the freezer. The Persians created dome-like houses in the desert out of sand, clay, and other materials, which could effectively trap and maintain ice. Water came in from an aqueduct or was brought to the yakhchal in buckets.

The dome is typically 15m high, has a small ventilation hole at the top, and could preserve food year-round thanks to the two-metre-thick walls. The temperature in a yakchal could reach as low as -5°C.